Conspiracy theories and their believers in an era of misinformation

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The global landscape of conspiracy theories

In today’s hyperconnected and information-saturated world, conspiracy theories have proliferated across the planet, transcending geographical, political, and social boundaries. Defined as “an attempt to make sense of notable events by placing responsibility on a secret plot perpetrated by an influential individual or group” (Bordeleau, 2023, p. 2), conspiracy theories have become a global phenomenon. They are shaped and accelerated by technological advancements, social media platforms, and the widespread accessibility of information—both accurate and misleading. Conspiracy theories, once confined to fringe groups or specific cultural milieus, now influence mainstream discourse and have significant social, political, and public ramifications.

The impact of conspiracy thinking is increasingly visible in various domains. In the United States, movements such as QAnon exemplify the capacity of conspiracy theories to motivate political violence, destabilize democratic institutions, and foster distrust in electoral processes (Arceneaux & Truex, 2023; Garry et al., 2021). In Europe, conspiratorial claims about immigration and globalism have fueled far-right populist movements, while in countries like Brazil, conspiracy theories surrounding political opponents have deepened polarization and enabled authoritarian practices (Bergmann & Butter, 2020; Kalil et al., 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic starkly illustrates the global reach and consequences of conspiracy theories. False claims about the origins of the virus, the efficacy of vaccines, and government intentions have undermined public trust in science and health authorities, contributing to vaccine hesitancy, resistance to public health measures, and unnecessary loss of life (Pummerer et al., 2022). These narratives often exploit pre-existing fears and uncertainties, thriving in moments of crisis when people seek explanations for complex or chaotic events (Douglas et al., 2017). They thrive across various social and demographic groups, affecting individuals of all ages, socioeconomic status, genders, religions, and more (Bordeleau & Stockemer, 2024; Dyrendal, 2020; Enders et al., 2024).

Recent technological advancements have amplified the reach and adaptability of conspiracy theories. Social media platforms like Facebook, X (formerly Twitter), and TikTok serve as fertile grounds for their spread, enabling disinformation to traverse borders at unprecedented speeds. Algorithms designed to maximize user engagement inadvertently promote sensational and emotionally charged content, often privileging conspiracy theories over fact-based information (Guess & Lyons, 2020). Moreover, conspiracy theories exhibit remarkable flexibility, adapting to local contexts and cultural sensitivities to maximize their reach.

The pervasive influence of conspiracy theories in today’s global landscape underscores the urgent need for empirical research that seeks to understand their causes and consequences as well as develop strategies to mitigate their spread and impact. Understanding the appeal of conspiracy theories requires an interdisciplinary approach that examines their psychological, social, and structural underpinnings. This special issue proposes a series of innovative research articles and commentaries that investigate the causes, consequences, and potential solutions to conspiracy beliefs and conspiratorial thinking.

The special issue on conspiracy theories

The articles in this special issue collectively offer a comprehensive view of the conspiracy theory phenomenon, spanning its origins, societal impacts, and possible solutions. They demonstrate that conspiracy beliefs arise from complex interactions between individual psychology, sociopolitical contexts, and broader cultural narratives. Importantly, they also show that while conspiracy thinking can erode trust and promote political violence, it is not insurmountable, and solutions are on the horizon.

The special issue kicks off with an article by Snagovsky which explores the connection between white consciousness and conspiracy thinking. Focusing on the United States and other multicultural democracies where white identity politics are increasingly salient, Snagovsky finds that individuals with heightened white consciousness are not only more prone to generalized conspiracy thinking but also more likely to embrace specific, racially charged narratives like the “great replacement” theory. These findings highlight the intersection of identity politics and misinformation, underscoring the importance of addressing racial and ideological dimensions in combating conspiracy theories.

Moving to the next article, Imhoff and Bertlich argue that not all conspiracy beliefs stem from flawed cognition. To support their argument, the authors distinguish between plausible and implausible conspiracy theories. They demonstrate that while belief in implausible theories correlates with lower cognitive abilities and higher receptivity to pseudo-profound statements, plausible theories show no such associations. Their findings, therefore, suggest that prior research may overstate the role of cognitive deficits in conspiracy beliefs by focusing predominantly on implausible examples.

In the third article of the issue, Stockemer and Bordeleau comparatively examine the prevalence and determinants of climate change conspiracy beliefs. Drawing on cross-national data from eight diverse countries, their study reveals that such beliefs are widespread but shaped by local variations in political ideology, populist attitudes, age, and distrust in scientists. This cross-cultural approach underscores that conspiracy beliefs are not monolithic but instead reflect specific cultural and ideological contexts.

Beyond understanding who believes in conspiracy theories, it is essential to examine their societal impacts. Conspiracy beliefs have far-reaching consequences for democratic culture, political violence, and social trust. In the third article of the special issue, Enders, Klofstad, and Uscinski investigate the relationship between conspiracy beliefs and political violence. Their study identifies significant correlations between adherence to fringe conspiracy theories and both support for and engagement in political violence. Importantly, the authors observe that beliefs in more fringe conspiracy theories are more strongly linked to violent tendencies than those in popular mainstream theories. This nuanced finding suggests that efforts to address the dangers of conspiracy beliefs must account for their varying intensity and appeal.

Moving beyond political violence and focusing on immigration and COVID-19-related narratives, Herold’s study examines the impact of conspiracy thinking on democratic culture in Europe. Using data from 10 European countries, Herold reveals that conspiracy beliefs both reflect and exacerbate democratic backsliding, weakening civic participation and trust in institutions. However, his findings also indicate that conspiracy believers often maintain strong identification with their regional and national communities, presenting a potential entry point for fostering more inclusive civic engagement.

The last two articles in this special issue shift the focus to solutions against the spread of conspiracy beliefs. In the first of the two articles, Murphy examines the “climate lockdown” conspiracy. This specific conspiracy theory posits that elites may use climate change as a pretext for imposing lockdowns, a claim based on possibility rather than actual evidence. In his commentary, Murphy argues that traditional fact checking fails to effectively counter such conspiracies because they operate within an “ontology of possibility,” emphasizing potential over reality. The author suggests shifting counter-misinformation efforts toward highlighting plausibility and probability rather than certainty to better address these narratives.

This issue concludes with an exploration of innovative interventions aimed at reducing the spread and influence of conspiracy beliefs. In their research article, Meyer and colleagues present a promising AI-powered intervention designed to diminish belief in conspiracy theories. Their study evaluates the effectiveness of a “street epistemologist” chatbot, which encourages individuals to reflect on the uncertainties underlying their beliefs. By prompting users to critically examine their assumptions, the chatbot reduces epistemically unwarranted beliefs. Meyer et al. further demonstrate that even simple reflection tasks, independent of AI, can yield meaningful reductions in conspiracy beliefs. These findings highlight the potential for scalable technological tools to address misinformation and provide an optimistic close to the special issue.